Abstract
This study examined middle-school-aged children's expectations, attitudes, and perceptions toward the
relative safety of riding bicycles at night with reflectors and/or head and tail lights. Three hundred and sixtythree
children in grades 7 through 9 were surveyed. Half of the children reported that it was not dangerous to
ride a bicycle at night with only reflectors or only lights, while almost all reported that it was safe to ride at night
if they had both reflectors and lights. More than half reported that it was difficult to see a bicycle that had
reflectors but no lights. However, bicycles that had lights but no reflectors were perceived not difficult to see.
Most of the children reported that they would not ride their bicycle at night without lights if they knew it was
dangerous because drivers could not easily see them. The findings also indicated that only 22% of the children
had lights on their bicycles; while over 51% reported riding their bicycles at night at least once in a while. The
results of the study suggest that children riding their bicycles at night without lights are under-estimating the
dangerousness of the activity. Furthermore, a large percentage of children are underestimating the ease at which
drivers can see them on their bicycle at night without lights.
1. Introduction
In the United States (U.S.), there are nearly 28 million children between the ages of five and 14 that ride bicycles [1]. Many of these children ride their bicycles in or near roadways at dawn, dusk, and at night. To do so safely, they must be seen by other roadway vehicles. Vehicle operators must be able to see the bicyclist and have enough time and distance to adjust their driving to safely share the roadway.
In 1976, the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) began to regulate the number and type of reflectors required on bicycles in section 16 of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) 1512.16: Requirements for reflectors [2]. The CPSC offers the following rational for adding reflectors to the requirements for bicycles:
Bicycles shall be equipped with reflective devices to permit recognition and identification under illumination from motor vehicle headlamps.
The CPSC requires all bicycles sold in the U.S. to have a white reflector on the front of the bicycle, a red reflector on the rear of the bicycle, white reflectors on both wheels, and reflectors on the front and rear surface of each pedal.
Over the last two decades there have been a number of published studies and reports on the hazards associated with bicycle riding in the U.S.
Most of the studies provide published injury and death statistics collected by the U.S. Department of Transportation (US DOT) and the National Electronic Injury Surveillance System (NEISS). These studies examined the injury and death statistics available and then categorize them by factors such as age, location, and time of day.
The following was reported by the U.S. National Highway and Transportation Safety Association (NHTSA) in 2003 [3]:
- There were 622 bicyclists killed and an additional 46,000 injured in traffic crashes;
- Bicycle fatalities occurred more often in urban areas, between 5 and 9 p.m., and during the summer months;
- More than 23% of bicyclists killed in traffic crashes were between the ages of 5 and 15 years old;
- The fatality and injury rates for the 5 and 15 year old age group were 50% and 60% higher, respectively, than all bicyclists.
The Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) reported that in the year 1997 [4]:
- 31% of all bicycle related deaths were children younger than 16 years old;
- Bicycle deaths per million were highest among 11 and 14 year olds;
- 62% of bicycle deaths occurred in urban areas, while 34% occurred at intersections.
Data provided by Rodgers [5] for the years of 1992 and 1993, showed that 23.5% of bicycle related deaths occurred between 9 p.m. and 6 a.m. and 27% occurred at intersections. Rodgers [5] also found that 12% of the riders surveyed reported to riding occasionally after dark.
Furthermore, Green, Hill, and Hayduk [6] in analyzing CPSC reported bicycle fatalities; found that 46% of all bicycle related deaths may be linked to riding at night.
Tinsworth [7] found that in the year 1993, children riding their bicycles at dawn, dusk or night are 3.64 times more likely to be injured than when riding in daylight. Tinsworth [7] also found that less than 8% of all bicycles involved in injuries were reported to have been equipped with lights and that most of the bicycles involved were equipped with the CPSC mandated reflectors.
It is apparent from these studies and injury statistics that children riding bicycles at night are at higher risk of collision than riders of any other age group riding at any other times during the day. It is also apparent from the research that even with bicycles equipped with the required CPSC reflectors, riders are still at a higher risk of collision at night. For example, Rodgers [5] concluded:
Since most of these nighttime riders (i.e., those from the exposure survey) ride only a small proportion of the time after dark, nighttime riding appears to be an important contributing factor to bicycle deaths.
The intended purpose of the reflectors is to increase the visibility of bicycles at night [2]. However, the data suggest this is not always the case. There are several factors that determine the effectiveness of the reflectors including the distance and angle between the vehicle and the bicycle, the cleanliness of the reflector lens, and the presence of obstructions.
Of interest in this study are the unintended consequences of the presence of reflectors on children's bicycles. The presence of the reflector may imply an invitation to safely ride the bicycle at night. Furthermore, the presence of the reflector may provide a false sense of safety that bicycles so equipped can be safely ridden at night and be seen by traffic. For example, Tinsworth [7] concludes:
While it seems intuitively apparent that riding during dawn, dusk, or night would be riskier than at other times, it is possible that some people perceive reflectors as adequate protection at times when they may not be sufficient. ... Night riding may be an area deserving future information and education efforts (e.g., the need for bicycle lights, reflective clothing, etc.)
A purpose of this study was to determine middle-school-aged children's bicycle riding habits and patterns. A second purpose of this study was to determine middle-school-aged children's reasonable expectations, attitudes, and perceptions toward the relative safety of riding bicycles at night with reflectors and/or head and taillights.
2. Methodology
2.1 Questionnaire Design
The questionnaire consisted of three sets of questions. The first set of questions concerned demographic issues including age, grade, gender, and school attended.
The second set of questions was intended to capture respondents riding experience, knowledge, and habits. Respondents were asked to answer "Yes" or "No" to the following questions:
- Do you currently have a bicycle?
- Have you ever had a bicycle?
- Do you know what a bicycle reflector is?
- Does or did your bicycle have reflectors on it?
- Does or did your bicycle have a headlight on it?
Respondents were also asked to indicate "how often they rode their bicycle during the day" and "how often when it is dark," using the following scale: never / once in a while / once a week / a few times a week / every day.
The third set of questions was intended to capture respondents' attitudes and beliefs toward bicycle riding safety at night. Participants were asked to rate the following questions using an 11- point Likert-type scale with numerical and textual anchors: 1 = very dangerous; 3 = dangerous; 5 = somewhat dangerous; 7 = somewhat safe; 9 = safe; 11 = very safe:
- How safe is it to ride a bicycle at night if it has reflectors on the wheels, pedals, and front and back tires but no lights?
- How safe is it to ride a bicycle at night if it has a headlight and taillight but no reflectors?
- How safe is it to ride a bicycle at night if it has reflectors on the wheels, pedals, and front and back tires, a headlight, and a taillight?
Participants were also asked to rate the following questions using an 11-point Likert-type scale with numerical and textual anchors: 1 = very difficult; 3 = difficult; 5 = somewhat difficult; 7 = somewhat easy; 9 = easy; 11 = very easy:
- How easy is it for a car to see a bicycle at night with reflectors on the wheels, pedals, and front and back tires but no lights?
- How easy is it for a car to see a bicycle at night with a headlight and taillight but no reflectors?
Finally participants were asked to answer "Yes" or "No" to the following question: Would you ride a bicycle at night that had reflectors but no headlight or taillight if you knew it was dangerous because cars cannot see you and the bicycle at night?
2.2 Participants and Procedure
Pilot surveys were conducted with several middle-school-aged children to ensure the questions and the language was understandable. Questions and responses that were deemed inadequate or misunderstood by the pilot participants were reworked or deleted.
The questionnaire was completed by 363 middle school children from Lancaster, PA (N = 159); Wayne (Philadelphia suburb), PA (N = 99); and Los Angeles, CA (N = 105). The questionnaire was distributed by classroom teachers during the school day. Proctors were asked to provide the students with the following instructions before giving them the questionnaire to complete:
- Students should complete ALL of the questions on BOTH sides of the survey (a total of 17 questions).
- Students should NOT go back and change an answer after reading a subsequent question.
- Students should NOT provide their name or any other identification on the surveys except for responses to the first four questions.
3. Results
3.1 Demographics
Participants reported an average age of 12.86 years old (SD = 1.16 years) and 49.6% reported being male. Fifty-two percent reported being in the 7th grade, while 22% and 26% reported being in the 8th and 9th grade, respectively. Forty-one percent reported going to a private school.
Eighty-five percent of the participants reported owning a bicycle, while 99.5% reported owning a bicycle at some point. Eighty-eight percent of the participants reported knowing what a bicycle reflector is. Seventy percent reported that their bicycle had reflectors, whereas 22% reported that their bicycle had a light.
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References
- Safe Kids Worldwide (n.d.). Facts About Injuries to Children Riding Bicycles. Retrieved February 01, 2006, from http://www.usa.safekids.org/content_documents/Bike_facts.pdf
- Consumer Product and Safety Commission (n.d.). An Overview of Bicycle Safety. Retrieved February 01, 2006 from http://www.cpsc.gov/CPSCPUB/PUBS/344.pdf
- National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (2003). Traffic Safety Facts 2003 Data: Pedalcyclists. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
- IIHS (1999). Bicycle Crash Data. The Insurance Institute for Highway Safety.
- Rodgers (1993). Part VI: bicycle deaths and fatality risk patterns. CPSC: The Bicycle Study.
- Green, Hill, & Hayduk (1996). Bicycle Reconstruction and Litigation.
- Tinsworth (1993). Part III: bicycle-related injuries: injury, hazard, and risk patterns. CPSC: The Bicycle Study.
- Tyrrell, Wood, & Carberry (2004). On-road measures of pedestrian's estimates of their own nighttime conspicuity. Journal of Safety Research, 35(5), 483-490.